Graphene and its Derivatives: Synthesis, Applications, and Environmental Perspectives

Abstract

Graphene, a two-dimensional carbon allotrope, has garnered global attention due to its exceptional mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, thermal stability, and biocompatibility. This review critically examines the synthesis methods of graphene, including chemical vapor deposition, epitaxial growth, chemical and mechanical exfoliation, and green approaches, emphasizing their efficiency, scalability, and environmental implications. Graphene’s versatile applications are discussed in-depth: its use in electronics (gas sensors, transistors, transparent conductive films, solar cells, and lithium-ion batteries) exploits its unique electrical properties; in biomedicine, graphene-based materials facilitate cancer therapy, gene delivery, tissue engineering, and bioimaging due to their functional tunability and biocompatibility. Furthermore, graphene’s role in environmental remediation, hydrogenproduction via water splitting, and as a nanofiller in aerospace materials highlights its multifaceted potential. In agriculture, while low concentrations of graphene promote seed germination and growth, high doses can induce oxidative stress and phytotoxic effects. This comprehensive review underscores graphene’s transformative capabilities while addressing challenges in its synthesis, applications, and ecological safety.